Middle East 201
The Origin and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
First, thank you to everyone who left very kind comments about Féline. I did in the end reach my vet, who told me I should give her a milligram of prednisolone—and that stuff is some serious voodoo. I gave it to her as instructed, and was astonished to be woken up the next morning by a perky cat who’d jumped on the bed at dawn, as she always does, to demand I play with her.
When I got up, I saw that she’d snarfed down every bit of food I left out for her, including the better part of a whole can of tuna, the rest of which she managed to strew from one corner of the room to the other.
I know it’s only a very temporary reprieve. I’m thrilled anyway.
Meanwhile, I’m busying myself with a memorandum to the Democratic Party. I’ll publish it here when I’m finished. Stay tuned.
The Ottomans, Part I
I wouldn’t usually send out the lesson plan quite so late, but I realized as I was writing this that I didn’t actually know all that much early Ottoman history. So I had to do a bit of studying. Thankfully, we’ll be joined tomorrow by my Ottomanist friend Bill Walsh, the smartest man alive, and he will compensate for my deficits. The class is open to anyone who’s done this week’s reading. The link is below.
The Sultans
Osman’s Dream has a detailed and very helpful chronology, including a complete list of sultans, at the end of the book. But here’s a list for easy reference:
Osman I (c. 1299–1323/4). Founder of the Ottoman dynasty.
Orhan (1323/4–1362). Son of Osman I; expanded empire into Europe.
Murad I (1362–1389). Conquered significant territories in the Balkans.
Bayezid I (1389–1402). “Bayezid the Thunderbolt.” Defeated at Ankara.
Interregnum (1402–1413). Civil war among Bayezid I’s sons.
Mehmed I (1413–1421). Reunited the empire after the Interregnum.
Murad II (1421–1444, 1446–1451). Twice abdicated and retook the throne.
Mehmed II (1444–1446, 1451–1481). Conqueror of Constantinople in 1453.
Bayezid II (1481–1512). Internal consolidation and administrative reform.
Selim I (1512–1520). Expanded the empire into the Middle East. Defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and assumed the title of Caliph, transferring the title from the last Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566). Empire’s zenith.
Selim II (1566–1574). Known as “Selim the Sot.”
Murad III (1574–1595). Faced significant internal and external challenges.
Mehmed III (1595–1603). Conflicts with Persia.
Ahmed I (1603–1617). Commissioned the Blue Mosque in Istanbul.
Mustafa I (1617–1618, 1622–1623). Twice deposed due to his madness.
Osman II (1618–1622). Overthrown and executed by the Janissaries.
Murad IV (1623–1640). Known for his harsh rule and military victories.
Ibrahim I (1640–1648). “Ibrahim the Mad.” Deposed and executed.
Mehmed IV (1648–1687). Significant military campaigns and reforms.
Suleiman II (1687–1691). Not known for anything, as far as I know.
Ahmed II (1691–1695). Continued military conflicts with European powers.
Mustafa II (1695–1703). Defeated in wars with Austria and Russia.
Ahmed III (1703–1730). Tulip Era. Deposed after the Patrona Halil revolt.
Mahmud I (1730–1754). Stabilized the Empire.
Osman III (1754–1757). Short and uneventful reign.
Mustafa III (1757–1774). Implemented reforms. Battles with Russia.
Abdulhamid I (1774–1789). Significant military defeats.
Selim III (1789–1807). Significant reforms. Deposed by the Janissaries.
Mustafa IV (1807–1808). Deposed in reformist counter-coup and executed.
Mahmud II (1808–1839). Major reforms; abolished the Janissaries.
Abdulmecid I (1839–1861). Initiated Tanzimat reforms.
Abdulaziz (1861–1876). Deposed and died under mysterious circumstances.
Murad V (1876). Short reign; deposed owing to madness.
Abdulhamid II (1876–1909) Harsh rule followed by Young Turk Revolution.
Mehmed V (1909–1918). Reigned during World War I, the Empire’s last years.
Mehmed VI (1918–1922). Deposed after the establishment of the Republic.
Abdulmejid II (1922–1924). Last caliph of the Ottoman dynasty.
Early Ottoman Empire timeline
(There’s also a timeline at the back of the book.)
Proto-Imperial Era (c. 1299–1326)
1299: Osman I declares independence from the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and establishes a principality in northwestern Anatolia. The date of the founding of the empire is debated, but commonly marked around 1299.
1302: Battle of Bapheus.Osman I defeats a Byzantine army near Nicaea, securing his territory and expanding influence in the region.
1308–1314: Osman captures Byzantine fortresses and towns in Bithynia, including Yenişehir, which becomes a base for further operations.
1324: Osman I dies, succeeded by his son Orhan.
Orhan (1326–1362):
1326: Orhan captures Bursa, which becomes the first major Ottoman capital and a significant administrative and cultural center.
1331: Orhan takes Nicaea (İznik), further weakening Byzantine control in the region.
1337: The Ottomans capture Nicomedia (İzmit), consolidating their control over northwestern Anatolia.
1345: The Ottomans annex the neighboring Turkish emirate of Karasi, expanding its territory in western Anatolia.
1352: Orhan’s son, Süleyman Pasha, captures the fortress of Tzympe in Gallipoli, providing the Ottomans with their first foothold in Europe.
1354: Gallipoli is seized after a devastating earthquake, solidifying Ottoman presence in Europe.
1362: Orhan dies and is succeeded by his son Murad I.
Murad I (1362–1389)
1362: Ottoman forces defeat a large Serbian and Bulgarian army at the Maritsa River, gaining control of Thrace.
1363: Murad I captures Adrianople, making it the new Ottoman capital and a key base for further European conquests.
1371: Another victory at Maritsa solidifies Ottoman control in the Balkans.
1385: The Ottomans capture Sofia, expanding their control into Bulgaria.
1386: Battle of Pločnik: The Ottomans face resistance from Serbian forces, highlighting the ongoing struggle for control in the Balkans.
1389: Battle of Kosovo. Murad I defeats a Serbian coalition at the Battle of Kosovo. Murad I is assassinated during the battle and is succeeded by his son Bayezid I.
Bayezid I (1389–1402)
1390–1391: Anatolian Campaigns. Bayezid I consolidates control over western Anatolia, subjugating several Turkish emirates.
1393: Bayezid I captures the Bulgarian capital, Tarnovo, further consolidating Ottoman control in the Balkans.
1394–1396: Bayezid I begins the siege of Constantinople, the Byzantine capital.
1396: Bayezid I decisively defeats a Crusader army at the Battle of Nicopolis, cementing Ottoman dominance in the Balkans.
1400–1402: Bayezid I faces the growing threat of Timur (Tamerlane) in the east.
1402: Bayezid I is defeated and captured by Timur at the Battle of Ankara. The defeat leads to the Ottoman Interregnum, a period of civil war among Bayezid’s sons.
Interregnum (1402–1413)
1402–1413: Following Bayezid’s defeat, his sons (Süleyman Çelebi, İsa Çelebi, Mehmed Çelebi, and Musa Çelebi) vie for control of the empire, which is fragmented and weakened.
1403: Treaty of Gallipoli signed between Süleyman Çelebi and Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, resulting in territorial concessions and temporary peace.
1413: Mehmed Çelebi emerges victorious, reuniting the empire and becoming Sultan Mehmed I. End of Interregnum
Mehmed I (1413–1421)
1413: Mehmed I emerges victorious from the Interregnum, reuniting the empire.
1416: Defeats a major revolt by Sheikh Bedreddin.
1421: Death of Mehmed I; his son Murad II succeeds.
Murad II (1421–1451)
1422: Siege of Constantinople. Murad II attempts to capture the city but fails.
1423–1430: Series of campaigns in the Balkans, including the capture of Thessaloniki from the Venetians.
1440: Failed siege of Belgrade.
1444: Battle of Varna. Murad II defeats a Crusader army, securing Ottoman control over the Balkans.
1444–1446: Murad II abdicates in favor of his son Mehmed II but returns to power after a Janissary revolt.
1448: Second Battle of Kosovo. Another victory for Murad II, solidifying Ottoman dominance in the Balkans.
1451: Death of Murad II. His son Mehmed II succeeds.
Mehmed II (1451–1481)
1451: Mehmed II begins preparations for the conquest of Constantinople.
1452: Construction of the Rumeli Hisarı fortress on the European side of the Bosporus, tightening the Ottoman siege of Constantinople.
April 6, 1453: Siege of Constantinople begins.
May 29, 1453: Conquest of Constantinople. Mehmed II captures the city, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople is renamed Istanbul and becomes the new Ottoman capital.
Study questions:
Describe the historiographical challenges of studying this period. Is it accurate to call it “a black hole?”
What thesis best accounts for the success of the early Ottomans?
To what extent was this ghaza state?
What role did Islam play in this state and what was its significance to the early expansion of the Ottoman Empire?
What role did the legend of Osman I’s dream play as the Ottoman Empire’s foundational myth? How did it reflect the early ambitions of the Ottoman state?
Describe the political and social conditions of Anatolia and the Byzantine Empire at the time of Osman I’s rise to power. How did these conditions facilitate the emergence of the Ottoman principality?
How did the identity and motivations of the ghazis shape the character and policies of the early Ottoman state?
How did Orhan’s policies and military campaigns lay the groundwork for the consolidation and expansion of the Ottoman state?
What was the relationship between the early Ottomans and the Byzantine Empire? How did alliances, conflicts, and interactions with Byzantium shape Ottoman strategies and territorial gains?
How did Murad I’s military strategies and campaigns contribute to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans? What were the key battles and their outcomes during his reign?
Discuss the establishment and role of the Janissary corps under Murad I. How did this military institution influence the structure and effectiveness of the Ottoman army?
What were the administrative structures and reforms implemented by Murad I? How did these enhance the governance and stability of the expanding Ottoman territories?
Describe Bayezid I’s ambitions for the empire and his approach to expansion. How did his military campaigns and policies change the empire’s territorial and political landscape?
What was the significance of the Battle of Ankara? How did Bayezid I’s defeat by Timur lead to the Interregnum period, and what were the long-term consequences for the empire?
Discuss the significance of the conquest of Constantinople strategically and culturally.
Here’s the first part of the book as an audiobook:
Videos
Turks have made some spectacular television dramas about the Ottomans in recent decades. What they lack in historical accuracy they make up for in great-looking stars and amazing costumes. Unfortunately, they don’t seem to be available on YouTube. I’ll try to figure out if I can stream them somehow, and if I succeed, we can have a soap opera party when we finish reading about the empire.
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